Oat

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This article is about the common cereal. For other uses, see Oat (disambiguation).
"Oats" redirects here. For other cultivated and wild species of the genus, see Avena.

Oat
Oat plants with inflorescences
Plants with panicles of spikelets
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Avena
Species:
A. sativa
Binomial name
Avena sativa
L. (1753)

The oat (Avena sativa), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural, unlike other cereals and pseudocereals). Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal, including as steel cut oats or rolled oats. Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly.[1] One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed.

Oat gluten proteins can trigger celiac disease in a small proportion of people.

Origins[edit]

Phylogeny[edit]

Oat ancestry, showing how hexaploid species including the common oat Avena sativa derive from diploid and tetraploid species

The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the closely related minor crop – A. byzantina – is A. sterilis, a naturally hexaploid wild oat, one that has its DNA in six sets of chromosomes. Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East.[2][3]

A 2018 analysis of maternal lineages of 25 Avena species by Yong-Bi Fu examined chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA. This showed that A. sativa's hexaploid AACCDD genome derives from three diploid oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes), namely the CC A. ventricosa, the AA A. canariensis, and the AA A. longiglumis, along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets of chromosomes), namely the AACC A. insularis and the AABB A. agadiriana. Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 mya, and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya.[4]

Domestication[edit]

Genomic study by Jinsheng Nan and colleagues in 2023 suggests that the hulled oat A. sativa and the naked oat A. sativa var. nuda diverged some 51,200 years ago, long before domestication. This implies that the two varieties were domesticated independently.[5]

Oats are thought to have emerged as a secondary crop. This means that they are derived from a weed of the primary cereal domesticates such as wheat, surviving as a Vavilovian mimic by having grains that Neolithic people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop.[3]

Oats appear to have been cultivated before they were domesticated. A granary from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, some 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the Jordan Valley in the Middle East contained a large number of wild barley and wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of wild oat, A. sterilis). This quantity could not have been collected from the wild, so the find implies intentional cultivation and harvesting of the undomesticated grain, thousands of years before oats were domesticated. Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe, far from the Middle East, less than 4,000 years ago.[6]

Description[edit]

Oat spikelets, containing the small wind-pollinated flowers

The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the Poaceae family; it grows to a height of some 1.8 metres (5.9 ft). The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some 15 to 40 centimetres (5.9 to 15.7 in) in length, and around 5 to 15 millimetres (0.20 to 0.59 in) in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or panicle of spikelets. These contain the wind-pollinated flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains.[7] Botanically the grain is a caryopsis, as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or bran, the starchy food store or endosperm which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich germ which if planted in the soil can grow into a new plant.[8]

Production and trade[edit]

Oats production – 2022[9]
Country Millions of tonnes
 Canada 5.2
 Russia 4.5
 Australia 1.7
 Poland 1.5
 Brazil 1.3
 Finland 1.2
 United Kingdom 1.1
World 26.4

In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of the total and Russia with 17% (table).

Oats futures are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December.[10]

Agronomy[edit]

Harvest in Jølster, Norway, c. 1890

Oats are annual plants best grown in temperate regions. They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than other cereals, such as wheat, rye or barley, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe.[11]

Oats are sown in the spring or early summer in colder areas, as soon as the soil can be worked, for harvest in the autumn. An early start is crucial to good fields, as the plants go dormant in summer heat. In warmer areas, oats are sown in late summer or early fall, for harvest the following summer. Oats are cold-tolerant and are unaffected by late frosts or snow.[12]

Weed control[edit]

The vigorous growth of oats tends to choke out most weeds. A few tall broadleaf weeds, such as ragweed, goosegrass, wild mustard, and buttonweed (velvetleaf), occasionally create a problem, as they complicate harvest and reduce yields. These can be controlled with a modest application of a broadleaf herbicide, such as 2,4-D, while the weeds are still small.

Pests and diseases[edit]

Main article: List of oat diseases
Oat leaf infected with crown rust

Oats are relatively free from diseases and pests. Nonetheless, it does suffer from some leaf diseases, such as leaf rust, stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae), and crown rust (P. coronata var. avenae).[13]

Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield.[14][15]

Processing[edit]

Fully-processed porridge oats, ready to cook

Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or "groat". Heating denatures enzymes in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified size. For home use such as making porridge, oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook.[16]

Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing rolled oats or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a food processor or spice mill.[17]

Genomics[edit]

Genome[edit]

Avena sativa is an allohexaploid species with three ancestral genomes (2n=6x=42; AACCDD).[18][19][20] As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex.[21][22] Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between the three subgenomes.[18][23] These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of Avena sativa was reported.[18] The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from Avena longiglumis and the CCDD from the tetraploid Avena insularis.[18]

Genetics and breeding[edit]

Species within Avena can hybridize and genes introgressed from other "A" genome species has contributed with many valuable traits, like oat crown rust (Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae) resistance.[24][25] Pc98 is one such trait, introgressed from A. sterilis CAV 1979, conferring all stage resistance (ASR) against Pca.[26]

It is possible to do introgression of traits in oats from very wide intergeneric hybridization. In contrast to wheat, oats sometimes retain chromosomes from maize or pearl millet.[27][28][29] These wide crosses are typically made in order to generate doubled haploid breeding material where the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a haploid).

The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as a source for novel traits in oats, for example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis. In order to obtain Mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have also been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This technique – which potentially transfer thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related – is not considered a GMO technique, according to the European Union definition, since sexual hybridization and radiation-induced introgression are explicitly excluded from the definition.[30]

A 2013 study applied simple sequence repeat and found five major groupings, commercial cultivars and four landrace groups.[31][32]

Uses[edit]

Oats have numerous uses in foods; most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola. Oats are also used for production of milk substitutes ("oat milk").[33] As of late 2020, the oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following the leader, almond milk, but exceeding the sales of soy milk.[34]

World map of oat cultivation, 1907

Historical attitudes towards oats have varied. Oat bread was first manufactured in Britain, where the first oat bread factory was established in 1899. In Scotland, they were, and still are, held in high esteem, as a mainstay of the national diet.

In Scotland, a dish was made by soaking the husks from oats for a week, so the fine, floury part of the meal remained as sediment to be strained off, boiled and eaten.[35] Oats are widely used in Scotland as a thickener in soups, as barley or rice might be used in other countries.

Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed ("rolled" or "crimped") for the horse to more easily digest the grain,[36] or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of a blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill, burr mill, or hammermill. Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage.[37]

Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer, or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready.[38]

Oat straw is prized by cattle and horse producers as bedding, due to its soft, relatively dust-free, and absorbent nature. The straw can also be used for making corn dollies. Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw was used to soften bath water.

Oats are also occasionally used in several different drinks. In Britain, they are sometimes used for brewing beer. Oatmeal stout is one variety brewed using a percentage of oats for the wort. The more rarely used oat malt is produced by the Thomas Fawcett & Sons Maltings and was used in the Maclay Oat Malt Stout before Maclays Brewery ceased independent brewing operations. A cold, sweet drink called avena made of ground oats and milk is a popular refreshment throughout Latin America. Oatmeal caudle, made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell.[39][40]

Health[edit]

Nutrient profile[edit]

Oats
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,628 kJ (389 kcal)
66.3 g
Dietary fiber11.6 g
6.9 g
Saturated1.21 g
Monounsaturated2.18 g
Polyunsaturated2.54 g
16.9 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
64%
0.763 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
11%
0.139 mg
Niacin (B3)
6%
0.961 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
27%
1.349 mg
Vitamin B6
7%
0.12 mg
Folate (B9)
14%
56 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
4%
54 mg
Iron
28%
5 mg
Magnesium
42%
177 mg
Manganese
213%
4.9 mg
Phosphorus
42%
523 mg
Potassium
14%
429 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
36%
4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
β-glucans (soluble fiber) [41]4 g
FoodData Central entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[42] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[43]

Oats contain diverse essential nutrients. In a 100 gram serving, oats provide 389 kilocalories (1,630 kJ) and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese (233% DV) (table). Oats are 66% carbohydrates, including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans, 7% fat and 17% protein (table).

The established property of their cholesterol-lowering effects[1] has led to acceptance of oats as a health food.[44]

Soluble fiber[edit]

Oat bran is the outer casing of the oat. Its daily consumption over weeks lowers LDL and total cholesterol, possibly reducing the risk of heart disease.[1][45] One type of soluble fiber, beta-glucans, lowers cholesterol.[1] The United States Food and Drug Administration issued a final rule[46] allowing food companies to make health claims on food labels of foods that contain soluble fiber from whole oats (oat bran, oat flour and rolled oats), noting that 3.0 grams of soluble fiber daily from these foods may reduce the risk of heart disease. To qualify for the health claim, the food that contains the oats must provide at least 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving.[46] Beta-glucans are a class of indigestible polysaccharides. In oats, they are located primarily in the endosperm's cell wall. The oat beta-glucan health claim applies to oat bran, rolled oats, whole oat flour and oatrim, a soluble fraction of alpha-amylase from hydrolyzed oat bran or whole oat flour.[46]

Protein[edit]

Oats are the only cereal containing a globulin or legume-like protein, avenalin, as the major (80%) storage protein.[47]

Celiac disease[edit]

Main articles: Oat sensitivity and Gluten-related disorders

Celiac (or coeliac) disease is a permanent autoimmune disease triggered by gluten proteins.[48][49][50][51] It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having a prevalence of about 1% in the developed world.[52] The provocative gluten types are present in wheat, barley, rye, oat, and all their species and hybrids[48][52] and contains hundreds of proteins, with high contents of prolamins.[53] Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley, requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains.[49]

Oat prolamins, named avenins, are similar to gliadins found in wheat, hordeins in barley, and secalins in rye. These are all types of glutens which are commonly called "gluten" in lay speech.[48] Avenins' toxicity in celiac people depends on the oat cultivar consumed because of prolamin genes, protein amino acid sequences, and the immunoreactivities of toxic prolamins which vary among oat varieties.[49][50][54] Also, oat products are frequently cross-contaminated with other gluten-containing cereals during grain harvesting, transport, storage or processing.[50][54][55] Pure oats contain less than 20 parts per million of gluten from wheat, barley, rye, or any of their hybrids.[49][50]

Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value from the rich content of oat protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and lipids,[50][56] but remains controversial because a small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats.[49][57] Some cultivars of pure oat could be a safe part of a gluten-free diet, requiring knowledge of the oat variety used in food products for a gluten-free diet.[49][50] Determining whether oat consumption is safe is critical because people with poorly controlled celiac disease may develop multiple severe health complications, including cancers.[58]

Use of pure oat products is an option, with the assessment of a health professional,[49] when the celiac person has been on a gluten-free diet for at least 6 months and all celiac symptoms have disappeared clinically.[49][59] Celiac disease may relapse in few cases with the consumption of pure oats.[60] Screening with serum antibodies for celiac disease is not sensitive enough to detect people who react to pure oats and the absence of digestive symptoms is not an accurate indicator of intestinal recovery because up to 50% of people with active celiac disease have no digestive symptoms.[60][61][62] The lifelong follow-up of celiac people who choose to consume oats may require periodic performance of intestinal biopsies.[58] The long-term effects of pure oats consumption are still unclear[58][59] and further well-designed studies identifying the cultivars used are needed before making final recommendations for a gluten-free diet.[55][56]

See also[edit]

Oat products and derivatives[edit]

References[edit]

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  61. ^ Moreno, María; Rodríguez-Herrera, Alfonso; Sousa, Carolina; Comino, Isabel (2017-01-06). "Biomarkers to Monitor Gluten-Free Diet Compliance in Celiac Patients". Nutrients. 9 (1): 46. doi:10.3390/nu9010046. ISSN 2072-6643.
  62. ^ Newnham, E.D. (2017). "Coeliac disease in the 21st century: paradigm shifts in the modern age". Journal of Gastroenterology Hepatology (Review). 32 (Suppl 1): 82–85. doi:10.1111/jgh.13704. PMID 28244672. S2CID 46285202. Intuitively, resolution of symptoms, normalization of histology, and normalization of coeliac antibodies should define response to treatment. But asymptomatic CD may occur in up to 50% of affected individuals,5 symptoms correlate poorly with mucosal pathology,6 and even with excellent dietary adherence, histology and coeliac antibodies can take several years to normalize.7Free access icon
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